The Driscoll Model Of Reflection can be used to investigate not only what happened during an experience, but also how the process behind that experience influenced the final result. People often judge an outcome as successful or unsuccessful without examining the steps that produced it. Reflection creates an opportunity to look underneath the result, identify important decisions, recognise overlooked factors, and understand how a process could be approached differently in the future.
The Outcome Is Only Part of the Story
A final result can hide a lot of information.
Imagine completing a project successfully. The deadline was met, the required work was submitted, and the expected result was achieved. It may be tempting to consider the experience finished.
However, reflection could reveal that the process involved unnecessary repetition, unclear priorities, rushed decisions, or avoidable delays.
The opposite can also happen.
A project may not produce the expected result even though the underlying process contained several strong decisions.
This is why reflective practice should not focus exclusively on whether the final outcome was positive or negative. Examining how the outcome developed can reveal more valuable learning.
Reflection as a Process Investigation
Driscoll's framework uses three questions:
- What?
- So What?
- Now What?
The University of Edinburgh describes these stages as describing an experience, exploring its meaning, and developing future action.
For process-focused reflection, these questions can be understood as:
What happened within the process?
What does the experience reveal about the way the process worked?
What should be changed, retained, or tested next time?
This interpretation allows the model to become useful for reviewing projects, assignments, practical tasks, group activities, and other structured experiences.
Choosing the Right Experience to Reflect On
Not every experience needs a long reflection.
A useful subject usually contains something worth investigating.
It might involve:
- An unexpected outcome
- A process that took longer than planned
- A decision that produced an unintended consequence
- A task that required repeated corrections
- A result that differed from expectations
- A method that worked particularly well
- A situation where several options were available
The key is to choose an experience that can provide a genuine learning point.
A routine event can be just as valuable as a major challenge if it reveals something important about how work is organised.
What? Reconstructing the Process
The first stage asks what happened.
When the focus is on process, it is useful to look beyond the final result.
Consider the sequence of events.
What was the original objective?
What preparation took place?
Which decisions were made first?
Were priorities established?
Did circumstances change?
Were any steps repeated?
What resources were available?
What happened immediately before the final outcome?
This creates a timeline of the experience.
Example: A Group Project
Suppose four students complete a research project together. The final submission meets the basic requirements, but the group spends the final two days making major changes.
A simple description might say that the assignment was submitted on time.
A deeper “What?” stage would examine how the work was organised:
- Tasks were divided during the first meeting.
- Individual sections were completed separately.
- The group did not review the full document until near the deadline.
- Several sections used different formats.
- Significant editing was required before submission.
Now the reflection has something meaningful to investigate.
So What? Finding the Hidden Lesson
The second stage asks what the experience means.
In the group-project example, the final deadline was met, but the process may reveal a weakness in coordination.
The important question becomes:
Why did the group need so much last-minute editing?
Possible explanations could include:
- Responsibilities were allocated without agreeing shared standards.
- Individual members interpreted the requirements differently.
- There was no intermediate review.
- The group assumed that separate sections would naturally fit together.
- Communication focused on completing tasks rather than checking overall progress.
The purpose is not to blame one person.
The purpose is to understand the relationship between the working process and the final result.
Examining Decisions Instead of Blaming Results
When something goes wrong, people often work backwards from the result and identify the most obvious mistake.
Reflection encourages a broader examination.
Suppose a presentation contains too much information and the audience struggles to identify the main message.
The problem may not simply be “too many slides.”
The writer could investigate earlier decisions:
- How was the presentation objective defined?
- Was the audience considered?
- How was information selected?
- Were important points prioritised?
- Was there an opportunity to test the presentation beforehand?
The final problem may have developed through several smaller decisions.
Understanding those decisions makes future improvement more precise.
Recognising Assumptions
Processes are often influenced by assumptions that remain invisible until something unexpected happens.
For example, someone may assume:
- A colleague understands the same instructions.
- A resource will be available when needed.
- A task will take the same amount of time as before.
- A customer already understands the process.
- A particular method will produce the expected result.
- Everyone has interpreted the objective in the same way.
Reflection provides an opportunity to ask whether these assumptions were justified.
This can be one of the most valuable parts of the “So What?” stage because assumptions often influence decisions before people consciously recognise them.
When Planning and Reality Do Not Match
Plans provide direction, but real situations can change.
A project may begin with a clear schedule and later encounter unexpected information, changing requirements, resource limitations, or competing priorities.
Instead of simply recording that the plan changed, reflection can examine how the change was handled.
Questions might include:
- Which part of the original plan became unsuitable?
- How quickly was the issue recognised?
- What alternative was selected?
- What information influenced the decision?
- What happened because of the adjustment?
- Would an earlier warning sign have been noticeable?
This helps turn an unexpected event into a learning opportunity.
Looking at the Order of Actions
Sometimes the problem is not what was done but when it was done.
Consider a student who begins writing an assignment before fully analysing the question. After several pages, they realise that some of the content does not directly address the task.
The problem may not be writing ability.
It may be the sequence of activities.
A reflective review could identify a more useful order:
- Interpret the question.
- Identify the required areas.
- Gather relevant material.
- Organise the argument.
- Draft the response.
- Review it against the original requirements.
Reflection can therefore reveal that changing the sequence of actions may be more useful than simply “working harder.”
Learning From Efficient Processes
Reflection should not always search for something to fix.
Sometimes an experience reveals an efficient method worth preserving.
Imagine someone completes a complex task earlier than expected.
Instead of simply celebrating the result, reflection could investigate what contributed to the efficiency.
Perhaps the person:
- Prepared materials in advance.
- Removed unnecessary steps.
- Set clear priorities.
- Used a template.
- Completed difficult work before simpler tasks.
- Checked requirements at the beginning.
Understanding the successful process makes the result repeatable rather than accidental.
So What? Comparing Intention With Reality
Another useful reflective question is:
What did I expect to happen, and what actually happened?
The difference between the two can reveal valuable information.
For example:
Expectation:
The first stage of a project would take one hour.
Reality:
It required three hours.
Instead of simply recording the difference, reflection could investigate why.
Maybe the original estimate ignored preparation time. Perhaps the task involved unfamiliar information. Maybe several dependencies were overlooked.
This type of comparison can improve future planning.
Understanding Dependencies
Many tasks depend on other tasks being completed first.
If one part of a process is delayed, later stages may also be affected.
Reflection can identify these connections.
For example, a report may be delayed because the required data was not available. The data was delayed because the request was sent late. The request was sent late because the reporting requirements were not confirmed at the beginning.
The final delay therefore had a chain of causes.
Looking at the entire chain can produce a more useful learning point than focusing only on the final delay.
Now What? Designing a Better Process
The final question moves from understanding toward action.
Once the reflection identifies what influenced the outcome, the writer can decide what should happen next.
The action might involve:
- Adding an early review point
- Changing the order of tasks
- Confirming requirements sooner
- Creating a simple checklist
- Allowing additional preparation time
- Testing an approach before using it fully
- Recording important assumptions
- Establishing clearer responsibilities
The University of Edinburgh recommends making action plans concrete rather than relying on vague promises to simply work differently or better.
Small Process Changes Can Be More Useful
A reflective action does not need to completely redesign an existing process.
Small changes can be easier to apply and evaluate.
For example, if a project repeatedly experiences problems near completion, one practical response could be to introduce a halfway review.
The purpose would be to check:
- Whether the work still meets the objective
- Whether responsibilities remain clear
- Whether any section needs adjustment
- Whether additional information is required
This single checkpoint could reveal problems before they become urgent.
Creating a Before-and-After Comparison
One way to make reflective action measurable is to compare the old process with the revised process.
For example:
Previous approach:
Complete all sections independently and combine them at the end.
Revised approach:
Agree formatting and key requirements before work begins, followed by an early group review.
The next experience can then be examined to determine whether the change made the process clearer or more efficient.
This turns reflection into something observable.
Reflection Can Improve Future Planning
A reflection does not have to remain connected to the original experience forever.
Once a lesson has been identified, it can influence future planning.
If previous experience showed that a particular stage consistently takes longer than expected, future plans can account for that information.
If an earlier project revealed that unclear responsibilities created confusion, those responsibilities can be clarified at the beginning of the next project.
The past experience therefore becomes planning information.
Using a Reflection Log for Repeated Tasks
Repeated activities provide an excellent opportunity for process-based reflection.
A short log could contain:
Task: What was being completed?
Expected: What did I think would happen?
Actual: What happened instead?
Reason: What appears to have influenced the difference?
Learning: What does this tell me?
Adjustment: What will I change next time?
After several entries, recurring patterns may become visible.
This can make reflection more useful than relying on memory alone.
Avoiding Superficial Process Reflection
A common problem is identifying an issue without investigating its cause.
For example:
“The project took too long, so I need to manage my time better.”
This statement may be true, but it does not explain why the project took too long.
A stronger reflection might discover that the original task was poorly defined, several requirements changed during the process, and no review point existed between planning and completion.
The resulting action would therefore be more specific.
This demonstrates why the “So What?” stage deserves careful attention.
Making the Model Cyclical
Reflection does not necessarily end once an action has been identified.
University guidance describes Driscoll's model as supporting a movement from experience to reflection and then future action, with new learning informing later experiences.
This creates a continuing process:
Experience → Examination → Learning → Adjustment → New Experience
The new experience then provides fresh material for reflection.
Over time, this can create a more deliberate approach to learning from real situations.
FAQs About the Driscoll Model Of Reflection
What is the main purpose of the Driscoll Model Of Reflection?
The model helps individuals examine an experience, understand its meaning, and decide what action should follow. Its three questions are What?, So What?, and Now What?
Can Driscoll's model be used to analyse a project?
Yes. It can be used to examine planning, decisions, unexpected events, outcomes, and possible improvements within a project.
Why should assumptions be considered during reflection?
Assumptions can influence decisions without being consciously recognised. Examining them can help explain why an outcome differed from expectations.
What makes the “Now What?” section strong?
A strong action is specific and practical. It should explain what will change and, where appropriate, how the change will be applied and reviewed.
Can successful experiences be reflected on?
Yes. Reflection can identify why a process worked well and which useful practices could be repeated in future situations.
Does reflection have to focus on a major event?
No. A small experience can provide valuable learning if it reveals something important about a process, decision, assumption, or outcome.
How can reflection improve future planning?
Lessons from previous experiences can be incorporated into schedules, task sequences, review points, preparation methods, and future decision-making.
Conclusion
The Driscoll Model Of Reflection can be used as a powerful tool for examining the processes behind results rather than judging outcomes in isolation. By reconstructing what happened, investigating the assumptions and decisions that influenced the experience, and creating a specific response for future situations, reflection can reveal lessons that are easy to miss. This approach is useful for assignments, projects, practical tasks, and professional activities because it encourages individuals to understand not only what happened, but also how the process produced the result. When reflection becomes part of future planning, every completed experience can provide useful information for the next one.
